IMPLICATIONS OF EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES

 Unit-V: IMPLICATIONS OF EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES

Equality of Educational Opportunity; equality in constitutional provisions; Inequality in schooling, Causes for inequality, discrimination, and marginalization in education – Types of inequity: caste, gender, class, regions – Elimination of social inequalities through education – education for marginalized groups: Dalits, tribals and women.

EQUALIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES

All individual citizens should be treated as equal in democratic country. They must be given equal opportunities for reaching their goals. To give equal chance to every individual for the development of his capacity. It interpreted in two ways such as:

1.      Horizontal equality: Treats all citizens in equal manner.

2.      Vertical equality: Requires special consideration to bring about equality of opportunity.

Need of Equality of education opportunity

Following are the needful activities to enhance the Equality of education opportunity:

•      To ensure equality and social justice for all.

•      To Enrich the individual and the whole society.

•      To establish an egalitarian society.

•      To ensure a rapid advancement of a nation.

•      To extend the search of talent among all the people of a nation.

•      To develop a close link between the manpower needs of a society and the availability of skilled personnel.

Views of Commission and committees regarding inequality of educational opportunity: Sergeants report suggested that equality of opportunity could be provided at the primary stage through Free schooling, Mid-day meal, Supply of books, Provision of scholarship, Provision of medical aid

•      Right of education is a universal human right [Act 26(1)] From this point of view education is a fundamental right

Views of Indian Education Commission regarding inequality of educational opportunity:

Following are the views of Indian Education Commission regarding inequality of educational opportunity:

•      Lack of school facilities in rural areas.

•      Financial handicaps.

•      School buildings and equipment

•      Social, economic and religious problems.

•      Wastage of material and equipment.

•      Defective curriculum.

•      Stagnation in the form of money, material, energy and efforts.

•      Lack of efficient teachers.

Recommendation of Indian Education Commission:

Following are the Recommendation of Indian Education Commission to eradicate the inequality of educational opportunity

•      Tuition free education up to lower secondary stage.

•      Private costs in education should be reduced.

•      Scholarships.

•      Transport facilities.

•      Preference to be given to the need of girls.

•       Greater efforts are needed to provide educational facilities for nomadic and semi-nomadic groups.

•       Education for the tribal people deserves great attention.

•      Enrollment of non-enrolled children from S.C’s,   S.T’s Agricultural landless labourers and Urban slum dwellers.

 

EQUALITY IN CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS:

 The list of provisions in the Indian Constitution to bring about equality in all walks of life is the following:

Equality in the Preamble of the Indian constitution: Preamble declares India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular and democratic republic. 3. The objectives stated by the Preamble are to secure justice, liberty, equality to all citizens and promote fraternity to maintain unity and integrity of the nation.

Equality in the Fundamental Rights: Fundamental Rights are the basic rights that should be provided to each citizen regardless to any social status. These rights are enforceable by courts. They guaranteed the equality in the educational institutions.

·         Right to Equality (Article 14-18)

·         Right to Freedom (Article 19-22)

·         Right against Exploitation (Article 23-24)

·         Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25-28)

·         Cultural and Educational Rights (Article 29-30)

·         Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32)

·         Right to Education (Act 26(1)

Equality in the articles of the Indian Constitution

Other than fundamental rights some of the following articles of the Indian Constitution also pointed out the Equality in education:

·         Article 15, 17, 46: Protect scheduled castes and scheduled tribes from social injustice and all forms of exploitation

• Article 15(1) : No discrimination on groups only of sex.

·         Article 26 (1) : Instruction in Mother –Tongue

·         Article 29(1) : Equal opportunity in Educational Institutions

o   No citizen shall be denied admission in any educational institution

o   No distinction on the basis of position, caste, class or creed.

• Article 30: Education of Minorities
• Article 45: Free and compulsory Education for all children

INEQUALITY IN SCHOOLING:

It is the unequal distribution of academic resources, including school funding, experienced teachers, textbooks, and technology. The communities lacking these resources are historically oppressed.

School Children are not much bothered about inequalities in schools. But unknowingly, they also become a part of it. They won’t purposefully create this but it arises sometimes when not given proper attention.

Inequality in schooling – India

Inequalities in access, completion and quality. Class, linguistic background, gender, ethnicity and place of birth all have impact on the educational experience children have in India

 

CAUSES FOR INEQUALITY, DISCRIMINATION AND MARGINALIZATION IN EDUCATION

Inequality: Inequality refers to the difference between the rich and poor, the have and have-nots.  It is shown by people’s different positions within the economic distribution like wealth, pay and income. The uneven and unfair distribution of opportunities and rewards that increase power, prestige, and wealth for individual group and society

Discrimination: Discrimination is the unfair or prejudicial treatment of people and groups based on characteristics such as race, gender, age or sexual orientation. Discrimination means treating a person unfairly because of who they are or because they possess certain characteristics. If you have been treated differently from other people only because of who you are or because you possess certain characteristics, you may have been discriminated against. The Equality Act 2010 highlights 9 protected characteristics: Age, Gender, Race, Disability, Religion, Pregnancy and maternity, Sexual orientation, Gender reassignment, Marriage and civil partnership

Marginalization: Marginalization is a multidimensional process that denies opportunities and outcomes to those ‘living on the margins’, while enhancing the opportunities and outcomes for those who are ‘at the centre’. Caste and class prejudices, in many societies across the globe, exclude many communities and hinder their effective participation in economic and social development.

Following are the causes for inequality, discrimination and marginalization in education:

Economic causes: The low economic remuneration received for certain work activities may be a factor leading to economic inequality. Many parents simply cannot afford to send their children to school and are dependent on their workforce to ensure the survival of the family. The distance to schools is also considered a huge barrier for Marginalized children, and a significant part of the explanation for the low enrolment rate and the high dropout rate.

Ethnic causes: The ethnic population to which the individual belongs may determine how he or she is treated. Xenophobia and racial discrimination are often associated with this type of social inequality. The forms of structural discrimination and abuse that children face in schools are often so stigmatizing that they are forced to drop out of school. One of the main issues is the discriminatory practices conducted by teachers, which may include corporal punishment, denial of access to school water supplies, segregation in class rooms, and forcing Ethnic children to perform manual scavenging on and around school premises.

Cultural causes:  Marginalized children face discriminatory attitudes from fellow students and the community as a whole, in particular from higher caste members who perceive education for Marginalized as a threat to village hierarchies and power relations. The so called cultured people not tolerate the enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms, in particular concerning access to public functions, employment and education of the marginalized.

Gender causes: Inequality between men and women is a reality that has existed throughout the history of humanity and that despite the fact that in the present era, many achievements have been made in favor of women, there are still societies in the world where women have an unfavorable status with respect to men.

Political causes: treatment of its citizens. Marginalized people might be politically and legally ignored, excluded, or neglected, and, therefore vulnerable. Marginality’ is demeaning, for economic well-being, for human dignity, as well as for physical security. The people who are marginalized are outside the existing political system of protection and integration. This limits their opportunities and means for survival.

Racial discrimination: Racial discrimination includes discrimination on the basis of ancestry or physical or cultural characteristics associated with a certain race, such as skin colour, hair texture or styles, or certain facial features. 

The critical role of language: Language and ethnicity are deeply intertwined. Having a distinctive language is often a crucial element of personal identity and group attachment. Just as a local language may be a point of association for members of an ethnic group, it can also be an element in their marginalization. School age children speak languages at home that are not recognized in schools or official settings

Migratory labour: Migratory labour is another factor that adds to the high dropout rates. Many marginalized people are landless and are forced into migrant labour, as this is often the only way to ensure the economical survival of their families. The continuous migration in search for labor implies a frequent disruption of the marginalized children’s education and makes them incapable of keeping up with the academic advancement of other children

Incapable situation of the marginalized students: The indirect discrimination by teachers, such as neglect, repeated blaming, and labeling of Marginalized students as weak performers, lead to social exclusion of Marginalized students in schools. The consequence was irregular attendance in classroom, less concentration in studies, less participation in school activities, lower performance, failure, and school drop-out. Additionally, Marginalized children face discriminatory attitudes from fellow students and the community as a whole, in particular from higher caste members who perceive education for Marginalized as a waste and a threat. This is linked to a perception among some higher caste people that educated Marginalized pose a threat to village hierarchies and power relations, and that Marginalized are generally incapable of being educated

Impact of educational inequality

•      Increased  mental health problems and drugs addiction.

•      Higher rate of early pregnancies.

•      Lack of access to education.

•      Growing poverty.

•      Malnutrition.

•      Migration.

Solution for these inequalities

·         To solve gender inequalities, the teachers and parents involved should work together. The habit of giving priorities for a particular gender should be avoided. Let all students participate in all the activities irrespective of their gender. Discard the activities which don’t support mutual participation.

·         Racial discrimination should be avoided in schools. All students are equal, no matter what their religion, caste, complexion or locality is. The teacher must not be biased and also, they should take necessary disciplinary actions towards those who pass biased comments and remarks.

·         Teach the students the importance of secularism and unity. Make them aware of the feelings of those who are marginalized in the society. Tell them stories and incidents to develop a humanitarian concern in them.

·         To solve the economic inequalities, the first thing is to implement uniform for schools and make it compulsory to wear it on all days. The schools should supply the uniform, books, stationeries etc. for them. If possible, the schools should provide lunch too.

·         Inform the parents not to give any cash to the students unless the teacher demands.

·         Smartcards can be implemented so that the students can make their necessary purchases with that. The students will not have to bring money to the school and spend it unnecessarily because their parents will be aware of every item they purchase with that from school store or canteen.

·         To solve the academic inequalities, the teachers must take the upper hand. Always divide the class into groups which includes all levels of students for class activities. Give special attention to those who are weak and bring them up to the level of others.

·         Utilize Parent portal for better communication between the teachers and parents. Through Parent Portal, every parent can contact the teachers and get information regarding their child confidentially. They don’t have to feel bad about disclosing anything regarding their child to the teacher, so that the teacher can take care of the issue without letting others know about it.

Recommendations for Government:

1.         Governments should adopt special measures in favor of descent based groups and communities in order to ensure their enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms, in particular concerning access to public functions, employment and education.

2.         National and local governments should take effective measures to reduce dropout rates and increase enrolment rates among children of affected communities at all levels of public and private schooling.

3.         Governments should take concrete steps to eradicate the existing prevalence of caste-based discrimination in schools, including stereotypical and demeaning references in e.g. school books; ensure inclusion of children of affected communities in schools; and disseminate general information about the importance of non-discrimination and respect for affected communities in the entire education system.

4.         Governments should take all necessary measures to remove obstacles, including child labor, which keep children from regular full time education. Governments should also pay particular attention to the need of providing adequate education to illiterate children and adults who have not had any formal education.

5.         Governments should enable and improve educational and professional training for marginalized girls and boys so they can move to other professions of their own choice.

6.         National and local governments should promote a public campaign to raise awareness both among the public and among government officials, teachers, and media practitioners on discrimination based on work and descent. Areas of attention should not only include the print and broadcasting media but also alternative avenues of information dissemination, such as local oral information through theatre, songs, etc. as well as information via the internet.

TYPES OF INEQUITY: CASTE, GENDER, CLASS, REGIONS

Inequity by caste

Meaning of caste: Derived from Spanish word ‘caste’ which means race or breed. It is the integral part of traditional Hindu social organization.

Classification of Castes in Caste System

·         Brahmin:- Brahmin is a varna in Hinduism specialising as priests, teachers and protectors of sacred learning across generation.

·         Kshatriyas:- The kshatriya constituted the ruling and military elite. Their role was to protect society by fighting in wartime and governing in peacetime.

·         Vaishya:- Hindu religious refers Vaishyas to traditional roles in agriculture and cattle-rearing but over time they came to be landowners, traders and money-lenders.

·         Shudra:- Shudra is the fourth Varna. It performs the functions of serving the other three varna.

Inequalities caused by Caste System: Following are the inequalities caused by Caste System:

·               Violates fundamental rights

·               Creates disharmony and leads to conflicts

·               Responsible for groupism

·               Minority caste division

·               Social status is low due to narrow minded people

·               Lack of opportunities due to migration

·               Ill treatment to lower castes

Measures to control casteism and acts prohibited to caste discrimination: Following are the measures to control casteism and acts prohibited to caste discrimination:

·               Awareness must be raised

·               Programmes should be conducted

·               Policymakers must work towards equitable distribution

·               Inter-caste marriages and social interactions

·               Youths initiative towards social awareness

·               Fuelling tension by political parties should be banned

·               Education and entitled fundamental rights

To fulfill the Constitutional mandate several other Acts were also passed by the Parliament to end the exploitative and discriminatory practices against so - called lower castes Following are some ACTS to control casteism and acts prohibited to caste discrimination :

·         Protection of Civil Rights Act, in 1976

·         Prevention of Atrocities Act, 1989

·         The Provision of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Bill, 2013

The caste system is deep - rooted in its socio - culture and religion.  Some youths discarding social norms and cannot abolish caste system completely.  Law can provide protection from exploitation but not attitudinal change in upper castes. Now youth are the only hope for a change in society

Inequity by class: In modern western societies, inequalities are often broadly classified into three major divisions of social class: upper class, middle class and lower class. Each of these classes can be further subdivided into smaller classes (e.g. “upper middle”). Members of different classes have varied access to financial resources, which affects their placement in the social stratification   system.

Class, race, and gender are forms of stratification that bring inequality and determine the difference in allocation of societal rewards. Occupation is the primary determinant of a person class since it affects their lifestyle, opportunities, culture, and kind of people one associates with. Class based families include the lower class who are the poor in the society. They have limited opportunities. Working classes are those people in blue-collar jobs and usually, affect the economic level of a nation. The Middle classes are those who rely mostly on wives’ employment and depend on credits from the bank and medical coverage. The upper middle class are professionals who are strong because of economic resources and supportive institutions. Additionally, the upper classes usually are the wealthy families who have economic power due to accumulative wealth from families but not and not hard earned income.

Inequity by gender: Gender inequality refers to disparity between individuals due to gender. Gender is constructed both socially through social interactions as well as biologically through chromosomes, brain structure, and hormonal differences.

Some of the factors responsible for gender inequality

·         Illiteracy: Itinerancy is one of the factors responsible for gender inequality. According to 2001 census of India. The literacy level in India is 65.38% in which the male literacy level is 75.85% and female literacy level is only 54.16%.

·         Child Marriage: Children specially the girls are married at a very young age. This proves fatal for their overall development and have a negative impact on their health, too.

·         Social evils: Social evils like dowry system, sati system, are also responsible for the low status of women.

·         Discrimination against the girl child: The girl child is not treated properly in the family. People still prefer the birth of a boy rather than a girl. The girl child is basically trained for household work only. Even today, female infanticide is a common social evil.

Types of Gender Inequalities

There are many kinds of gender inequality or gender disparity which are as follows:

·         Inequality in Family : From birth, parents interact differently with children depending on their sex. Polygamy is legal for Muslims and it also exists to some extent among Hindus, particularly in cases where the first wife has not given birth to any sons. The old Hindu traditions favored men in matters of inheritance. Current Sex Ratio of India 2012 940 females for every 1,000 males

·         Fatality inequality: Parents wanting the newborn to be a boy rather than a girl. Sex-selective abortion has become common in many countries.

·         Professional or Employment inequality: men get priority in seeking job than women.

·         Ownership inequality: In many societies the ownership of property can also be very unequal. For example, even though traditional property rights have favored men in the bulk of India.

·         Household inequality: the family arrangements can be quite unequal in terms of sharing the burden of housework and child care. It is, for example, quite common in many societies to take it for granted that while men will naturally work outside the home

·         Special opportunity inequality: Even when there is relatively little difference in basic facilities including schooling, the opportunities of higher education may be far fewer for young women than for young men.

Inequity by regions

Causes for regional inequality in India

1. Geographic Disadvantage: Some regions have a geographic advantage. These include minerals, water resources, forest resources etc. Whereas some other places completely lack such resources, which places these regions at a geographic disadvantage. Former regions grow while the latter region lacks development.
2. Policy: The big bang liberalization policy of 1991, favored more to the capitalist class than the marginalized backward people. The prevalence of crony capitalism in India helped industrialists to accrue capital at the cost of skilling of labors. It widened the gap between poor and rich and hence, regional inequalities.
3. Political Instability and Security Issues: The regions at the tri-junction of the Indian States, commonly identified as a ‘red corridor’ are the cancer of Left-Wing Extremism. They are prone to violence and many developmental activities get thrashed by the Naxalites. These regions continue to underperform on many development indicators.
4. Human Resource: A lot depends upon the quality of human resource. For instance, the States such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra etc has higher literacy, quality of education and hence, these States have grown rapidly. Whereas, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh etc lacked development.
5. Historical Factors: Some States have inherited growth since the British era. For instance, the current metro cities in India were important colonial towns. The growth has just got spilled over from these cities to nearby regions. Whereas, there are areas in India, where the government is yet to reach.

ELIMINATION OF SOCIAL INEQUITIES THROUGH EDUCATION

Education not only preserves the cultural traditions i.e., customs, traditions and values etc. of the society but also transmits them to the next generation. Education fulfils the needs of the society and propagates ideas which promote social changes in all fields of life. Educational institutions do not just serve to certify knowledge. It is also a fundamental institution for the promotion of equality. Education should therefore develop scientific, cultural, social and personal skills that help increase young people's self-confidence, enhance their capabilities, improve their social, political participation and also eradicate social inequities. Following are the role of education to eliminate social inequities.

Democratic Education: Education changes the outlook and the tradition approach towards social and economic problems. It sharpens the skills and knowledge of the children. Democratic education is an educational ideal in which democracy is both a goal and a method of instruction. It brings democratic values to education and can include self determination within a community of equals, as well as such values as justice, respect and trust.

Special Education: Mentally challenged and handicapped students are educated through special learning methods, known as special education. For a student to be admitted into a special education school he is first evaluated on the various parameters of disabilities and accordingly, his eligibility is determined. Special education gave confidence to stand on their own leg

Vocational Education: Vocational education is education that prepares people to work in various jobs. Vocational education is sometimes referred to as career education. The World Bank’s 2019 World Development Report   on the future of work suggests that flexibility between general and vocational education particularly in higher education is imperative to enable workers to compete in changing labor markets where technology plays an increasingly important role. Vocational education prepares people to earn money by which they raise their status. Given equal opportunity for general, vocational, technical and professional education most citizens have equal status in the society. Education is often considered as an equalizer.

Technical education: Technical education helps in the process of industrialization which results in vast changes in society. Hereditary occupational structure has been replaced by occupation based on one’s own choice depending on one’s own capacity, ability and talent. It eliminate the social inequities

Professional education: Professional education is an educational process or program that develops individuals to acquire special competencies for professional practice. Preparation of graduates by university for specific professions such as archivists, librarians, teachers, nurses, engineers and doctors. It also motivates the students to adopt new pattern in order to remain dynamic and forward Looking. The ascribed status has been replaced by achieved status.

Research: Research is creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications."It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems and develop new theories. Many research must be undertaking for social equality. By which the superstition has been declined. People are becoming more and more secular, rational and scientific in their outlook.

Training: Training is teaching, or developing in oneself or others, any skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful competencies. People within many professions and occupations may refer to this sort of training as professional development. The competency gave the student to face the society in easy way. Teachers need training to challenge their attitudes to the marginalized and to equip them to effectively teach children from a diversity of backgrounds

Human Rights Education: Education brings about awareness of legal provisions that the marginalized can resort to in case of infringement of their rights. Human Rights Education creates awareness about various schemes that help to combat stratification. It is necessary to create egalitarian minds by instilling human values. Education nurtures critical thinking, decision making and such vital life skills that will help to fight the ill effects of stratification.

EDUCATION FOR MARGINALIZED GROUPS: DALIT, TRIBAL AND WOMEN

Meaning of Marginalized Groups

Marginalization is a process that denies opportunities and outcomes to ‘those ‘living on the margins’, while enhancing the opportunities and outcomes for those who are ‘at the centre’. 

Marginalized Groups   were disadvantaged people who struggle to gain access to resources and full participation in social life. In other words, marginalized people might be socially, economically, politically and legally ignored, excluded, or neglected, and, therefore vulnerable.

The people who are marginalized are outside the existing systems of protection and integration. This limits their opportunities and means for survival.

Types of Marginalized Groups

Marginalization at the individual level results in an individual’s exclusion from meaningful participation in society. Some broad types of marginalized Groups such as social, economic, and political have been identified.

1.      Socially Marginalized Groups: Socially marginalized people are largely deprived of social opportunities. There are those born into marginal groupings e.g., lower castes in India. Their social networks are weak and vulnerable. This creates social isolation and limits their participation in the development process.

2.      Economically Marginalized Groups: Economic marginalization” means being unimportant to the economy. Some individuals or groups can be marginalized from the rest of the economy. The sources and amount of their income varies. Poverty and economic marginalization have both direct and indirect impact on people’s health and wellbeing.

3.      Politically Marginalized Groups: Political marginalization does not allow the group to participate democratically in decision making, and, hence, they lose their right to every social, economic, and political benefit.  In every society, lack of political empowerment affects large sections of people, including women, ethnic minorities, migrants, and disabled persons, elderly.

Reasons responsible for marginalization

Exclusion: Marginalized combines discrimination and social exclusion. It offends human dignity, and it denies human rights. Caste and class prejudice, in many societies across the globe, exclude many groups and communities, and hinder their active participation in economic and social development.

Globalization: Globalization has increased openness which has promoted development at the cost of equity. It is viewed that globalization has enhanced the gap between haves and have-nots and thus boosted marginalization.

Displacement: The development programmes implemented by the government and increasing construction of development projects consistently displace a massive number of tribal, poor, and weaker sections. This results in marginalization of already marginalized people.

Disasters- Natural and Unnatural: Disasters are a global phenomena and a serious challenge to development. Vulnerability is linked to broader social issues such as poverty, social exclusion, conflict, education, health, gender issues and marginalization.

Most vulnerable Marginalized Groups

Some of the most vulnerable marginalized groups in almost every society are:

Women: Under different economic conditions, and under the influence of specific historical, cultural, legal and religious factors, marginalization of women can be seen from their exclusion from certain jobs and occupations. Women belonging to lower classes, lower castes, illiterate, and the poorest region have been marginalized more than their better off counterparts.

People with Disabilities:  People with disabilities have had to battle against centuries of biased assumptions, harmful stereotypes, and irrational fears. The stigmatization of disability resulted in the social and economic marginalization of generations with disabilities, and thus has left people with disabilities in a severe state of impoverishment for centuries.

Ethnic minority:  A minority is a sociological group that does not constitute a politically dominant voting majority of the total population of a given society. It may include any group that is subnormal with respect to a dominant group, in terms of social status, education, employment, wealth, and political power. Every large society contains ethnic minorities. They may be migrant, indigenous or landless nomadic communities, or religious minorities that have a different faith from the majority.

Caste Groups: Brahmins are on the top of the hierarchy and Shudras or Dalits or the Scheduled Castes constitute the bottom of the hierarchy. The marginalization of Dalits influences all spheres of their life, violating basic human rights such as civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights. Literacy rates, purchasing power and poor housing conditions among Dalits are very low. Physical segregation of their settlements is common. However, in recent years due to affirmative action and legal protection, the intensity of caste-based marginalization is reducing.

Tribes: In India, the population of Scheduled Tribes is around 84.3 million and is considered to be socially and economically disadvantaged group. They are mainly landless with little control over resources such as land, forest and water. They constitute agricultural, casual, plantation and industrial labourers. This has resulted in poverty, low levels of education and poor access to health care services. In the Indian context the marginalized are categorized as the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, denoted tribes, nomadic tribes, and other backward classes.

Problems Related to Education for marginalized Groups

The challenge of poverty associated with disability: With an estimated 1,027 million people, India is the world’s second most populated country. India still has more than 260 million people living in poverty. This is a syndrome that sets up barriers to the participation of persons with disabilities in the normal routines and activities of the community, including regular schooling.

The challenge of modifying deeply held attitudes: Attitudes of the non-disabled are proving to be a major barrier in the social integration of persons with disabilities. “The more severe and visible the deformity is, the greater is the fear of contagion, hence the attitudes of aversion and segregation towards the crippled”. Such attitudes reinforced by religious institutions may militate against any attempts to include students with disabilities into regular schools. For example, Hindus believe that disability is a consequence of misdeeds performed in the previous life (often referred to as the doctrine of Karma.

Dissemination and public education: People, including parents and school personnel, are largely unaware of the full intent of the recent legislation passed by Indian Parliament. A large number of school personnel are also not aware of funding available to include students with disabilities in regular schools. There is some evidence that those educators who are knowledgeable about government policies and laws concerning integrated education tend to have positive attitudes toward implementing such programs. There is also evidence when parents are knowledgeable and supportive of integrated education; they tend to have a positive effect on school personnel. Thus, unless people, especially parents of children with disabilities and school personnel, are made knowledgeable about the various provisions enshrined in the Act, the Central and State governments’ commitment to providing integrated education will be in vain. Although some attempts are being made to disseminate information about the Persons with Disabilities Act to parents, to government officials and non government organizations, they have been extremely limited in coverage.

The challenge of providing adequate levels of training to key stakeholders: The majority of school personnel in India are not trained to design and implement educational programs for students with disabilities in regular schools. Most teacher training programs in India do not have a unit on Disability Studies. The universities, which do cover some aspects of special education in their teacher training programs, fail to train teachers adequately to work in integrated settings

Inadequate resources: The majority of schools in India are poorly designed and few are equipped to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities. The lack of disability friendly transportation services and accessible buildings are considered by some to be far greater problems than social prejudice and negative attitudes. Both the Central and State governments will have to provide increased resources to this aspect of education to ensure successful implementation of integrated practices in schools.

Education of the Marginalized Groups in the Indian Context

The Education Commission 1964-66 in its report stressed on the equalization of educational opportunity. One of the most important objectives of education is to equalize opportunity enabling the marginalized, backward or the underprivileged classes to use education for improvement of their conditions. Policies on education 1968, 1986 and 1992 all stressed upon speedy action for the promotion education of the sections of the society.

Mainstreaming the Marginalized

Mainstreaming is the process, to integrate (a student with special needs) into regular school classes. Efforts have been made to reach education to all. However, there is wastage and stagnation in education. There are economic, social and educational causes that hinder the education of children coming from lower strata of society.

·            Incentives to families to send their children regularly to schools till they reach the age of 14.

·            Pre-metric scholarships for all children regardless of incomes.

·            Continuous micro planning and verification to ensure enrolment, retention and successful completion of courses.

·            Remedial measures to better their chances for further education and employment.

·            Recruitment of teachers from scheduled castes.

·            Provision of hostel facilities.

·            Location of school buildings, balwadis, and adult education centres to facilitate participation especially in rural areas, hill and desert districts or remote and inaccessible areas.

·            Priority given to opening schools in tribal areas with help of tribal welfare schemes.

·            Developing curricula and instructional materials in tribal languages with facility to switch to regional language. Also

·            The curricula in the states to depict rich cultural identity of the tribal people.

·            Teacher training to tribal youth with assured employment.

·            Residential schools including ashram schools, anganwadis, non formal and adult education centres to open on priority basis.

·            Incentive schemes, scholarships for higher education with emphasis on technical, professional and Para-professional courses.

·            Remedial programmes to help overcome psycho-social obstacles.

The marginalized groups existing in society have historically suffered deprivation in all walks of life in general and in education in particular. Efforts have been made towards economic, social and educational progress of the marginalized people of India. The examination reforms have been suggested right from the time of independence by various committees set up for the purpose There is great diversity in the population and the government of India has passed regulations with respect to inclusion of all irrespective of any kind of disability. There are efforts to provide equal opportunities and inclusion of all in the process of education.

Not only are we aware of the vital role that education plays in counteracting disadvantages over which people have little control, but also its important role in shaping their opportunities for education and wider life chances.

Protecting the rights of, marginalised and vulnerable persons is probably the most overlooked and disregarded area of human rights law. Marginalised groups are generally marginalised by society, making them easy to ignore. Since they only ever represent a small percentage of the population they lack the critical mass that is often needed to successfully assert human rights claims. Furthermore marginalised themselves are often aggressive towards each other.